A number of words and phrases currently in everyday usage can also be found in the language of football. Here is a selection of such terms, which you may find enlightening and entertaining.

Bootleg.   In popular talk, to bootleg is to smuggle alcoholic liquor. In football, it’s a type of running play intended to make the defense think that the quarterback (QB) has handed the ball to a running back. In reality, however, the QB has hidden the ball on his hip and rolled toward the sidelines. Afterwards, he will try to run with it or pass it.

Bye. This, in day-to-day speech, is a shortened form of “goodbye.” In football circles, it’s a week off, taken either early in the regular season’s schedule or in the middle of it. Players value this time as a much-needed rest period. It also allows the league to extend the season by one week without including extra games.

Fumble.   The everyday meaning of this word is to deal with something awkwardly or clumsily. In football jargon it means to drop the ball. Used as a noun, it’s a ball that’s dropped or knocked from a ballcarrier’s hands.

Gridiron.   In day-to-day language, a gridiron is a framework of metal bars used for broiling, or a frame of parallel beams used to support a ship in dock, to give two definitions. In football, it’s an old-fashioned word for the field itself, possibly because it may look like a gridiron when viewed from a distance, on account of the hash marks and yard markers.

Hail Mary.   Roman Catholics are familiar with this prayer to the Virgin Mary, also known as Ave Maria. Football enthusiasts know it as a play of desperation, often when time is running out, and usually a long pass to a receiver with an unvoiced hope for the best outcome.

Offense.   You know it as an act against someone or against the law. Football fans know it as an act of advancing or attempting to advance the ball against the opponents, and toward one’s own goal line.

Pigskin.   Leather made from a hog’s skin is called pigskin. In football circles, the word is commonly used to describe the ball itself, possibly because it was one made from this material.

Sack.   This, as we generally know it, is a large receptacle, usually made of coarse fabric, used to store or convey goods. In football, it refers to the moment when a QB is attempting to pass and is tackled behind the line of scrimmage.

There’s also the term “sack dances,” which refers to a form of celebration by defensive linemen, which follows a sack of the opposing QB.

Shotgun.   You know it as a short-range, short-bore firearm, often having two barrels. In the world of football, the word is part of the term “shotgun formation.” This is an offensive alignment in which the QB lines up about five yards behind the center to receive the “snap” (explained later) to start the play.

Snap.   This, in everyday parlance, means an act or sound produced by a sudden, quick opening or closing of something. In football talk, it pertains to the start of a new play from scrimmage. It can also refer to “hiking” the ball from the center to the QB.

Soft hands.   Advertisers of hand lotions and creams promise this desirable quality to consumers, usually women. When football fans use the term, they mean a player’s ability to catch a pass, no matter how the ball is thrown.

Tailgating.   You know it as driving dangerously close to another motor vehicle. Football fans are familiar with the word as relating to pre- and post-game parties held in stadium parking lots. In this context, it refers to the practice of lowering the tailgate of an automobile (such as a station wagon) and using it as a picnic table or temporary kitchenette.

Zebra.   The black-and-white vertical stripes of football officials’ uniforms bring to mind those fleet-footed African animals with alternating black (or brown) and white (or buff) stripes. Consequently, these officials have come to be known by the less-than-complimentary name of “zebras.”

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From a novice’s point of view, the apparent randomness displayed on a football field is, in fact, well-thought-out strategy. At any one time, there may be dozens of different plays every team player has committed to memory and knows by heart.

Here’s a thumbnail sketch of some key pieces of a typical game plan, the names by which they are known and what they mean.

Passing Game

This is an offensive strategy that hinges on throwing the ball down the field so as to gain yardage. Here are examples of some common plays.

The bomb.   This is a long pass, 30 yards or more, to one of the wide receivers (so named because they line up wide of the other offensive players and are eligible to receive the ball).

Bump-and-run.   A type of pass defense related to the five-yards-from-scrimmage restrictions (a defender cannot touch a receiver once the latter has gone five yards downfield from the line o scrimmage. (The line of scrimmage is a yard line passing through the end of the ball nearest a team’s own goal line, and which marks the start of each new play).

Double coverage.   A type of pass defense in which two defenders cover the same receiver.

Intentional grounding.   The NFL (National Football League) Rule Book stipulates that if the ball is thrown “without a realistic chance of completion,” a 10-yard loss-of-down penalty can be called.

Man-to-man coverage.   This pertains to any pass defense in which a particular defender covers a particular receiver.

Pump fake.   A tactic devised to deceive the defense: the quarterback pretends to throw the ball just before releasing it. The idea is to make the defenders react in such a way as to give the receivers a chance to create an advantage.

Shotgun formation.   This is an offensive alignment in which the quarterback lines up from three to six yards behind the center to receive the snap (start of a new play from scrimmage).

Zone coverage.   A pass defense requiring defenders to cover a particular area of the field and any receivers within it.

Running Game

This is an offensive strategy based on running the ball down the field so as to gain yardage. Here are examples of some common plays.

Dive.   Taking its name from the action it describes, this is a short-yardage play. It is usually run when a team is up against the goal line or a first-down marker. The quarterback immediately hand the ball to his running back who then propels himself past the linemen at his feet.

Draw.   A running play fashioned to look like a passing play. It is intended to “draw” the defenders into rushing the quarterback.

Had-off.   A basic way of transferring the ball from quarterback to running back. Despite its appearance of simplicity it does, in fact, require many hours of diligent practice to perfect.

Lateral.   This is, in reality, a backward pass. It is usually thrown either over- or underhand by a quarterback to a running back or a wide receiver, who can then run with it or try to pass it off himself.

Pitch.   In this play, the quarterback makes an underhand pass to the back, sometimes with both hands for better control and accuracy.

Quarterback sneak.   The quarterback, in this play, lowers his shoulder and makes a beeline through a hole created by his linemen, or leaps over a number of downed linemen. As the term suggests, there’s an element of surprise in the maneuver. It is usually used in a short-yardage situation in which every inch of territory is crucial.

Sweep.   This play was made popular by the Green Bay Packers teams in the 1960s, and takes its name from the “Packer Sweep,” which was coach Vince Lombardi’s signature play. It’s a running play that takes the ball wide, toward the sidelines.

There are, of course, other tactics football players use while engaged in a game. The above, however, will help to make sense of some of the moves you see, which may previously have seemed illogical to you.

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FOOTBALL TEAM PLAYERS

To rookie fans, the feverish activity on a football field may seem like somewhat erratic behavior. Veteran spectators of the sport, however, know that the game is, in fact, well organized. What a player does depends on his assigned position. Following is a simplified overview of how a football team is put together and what role each player executes.

The players

Eleven players per team are on the field at any ont time. In the NFL (National Football League), each player has a particular job to do on the unit to which he is assigned. And not all the players are on the field at once, but only when they are required in specific situations.

Team composition

The team that has the ball is ‘on offense’ (the offensive unit). It tries to score points by moving the ball closer to the other team’s end zone. (The end zone is the 10-yard area at each end of a football field, running its full width.)

The team without the ball is ‘on defense’ (the defensive unit). It tries to prevent the opposing team from scoring points.

The third unit, called ‘special teams,’ comes onto the field in special circumstances, as its name implies. These players are assigned to the kicking or receiving units on a kickoff or punt, or to blocking units.

The offense

The offensive backfield includes: the quarterback, running backs, fullbacks, halfbacks, center, guards, tackles and tight end.

Quarterback.   The central figure of the offensive backfield unit is the quarterback. So important is his role that the word has crept into everyday language and is now associated with highly successful leadership. The quarterback is the only player on this unit (other than the center) who touches the ball on every single down.

Running backs.   They position themselves a few steps behind or to the side of the quarterback. Their main job is to catch the ball and run with it, often through heavy traffic.

Fullbacks and halfbacks.   They lead the way for the halfbacks, sometimes called the tailbacks.

The center.   He lines up over the ball and snaps it to his quarterback to start the play. (A snap is when the center delivers the ball to the quarterback, usually through his legs, while crouched and facing forward.)

The guards.   They protect their quarterback and open up holes for their running back, in an effort to advance the ball.

The tackles.   They are usually positioned outside each guard. They protect their quarterback and open up holes for their running backs.

The tight end.   Usually one tight end (but sometimes two) is positioned next to one of the tackles. His job is to block for his quarterback and to open up holes for his running backs. He is also sometimes called upon to catch a pass and to run downfield with it.

Wide receivers.   They line up wide of the other offensive players to receive the ball. A wide receiver, sometimes known as a flanker, will line up wide of the linemen, a few steps off the line of scrimmage, on the strong side of the field. (The side of the field with the greater number of linemen—usually the side with the tight end—is known as the strong side.)

The defense

The defensive unit comes on to the field when the opposing team has possession of the ball. It consists of three sets of players: defensive linemen, linebackers and the secondary (also known as the defensive backfield). These players fulfill three well-defined functions from three distinct locations on the field.

Defensive linemen.   As the first line of defense, their primary job is to stop the opposing team’s offensive players from running the ball and generally to hinder the quarterback’s efforts.

Tackles and ends.   Usually, four defensive linemen line up on the line of scrimmage: two tackles who may tackle opposing players, and two ends who line up on the sides of the tackles. There’s a right tackle and a left tackle, and a right defensive end and a left defensive end. When there are only three defensive linemen, one is a right defensive end, another a left defensive end and the player in the middle is the nose tackle.

Linebackers.   The second line of defense, the linebackers, line up close behind the defensive linemen. They are charged with guarding against the pass or the run.

The middle linebacker may be thought of as the quarterback of the defensive team. On most teams, he’ll be the one giving the orders.

The outside linebackers are positioned—as their name suggests—outside the players in the middle.

Secondary.   Also known as the defensive backfield, the secondary represents the third line of defense, reinforcing the defense from the back.

Cornerback and safeties.   Cornerbacks are positioned behind the linebackers at each corner of the field, and safeties usually line up in the deepest part of the defensive backfield to guard against long pass plays.

Special Teams

True to its name, players on the special teams unit appear on the field in special circumstances only.

The punter is the player who lines up on fourth down to receive the long snap from the center, kicking the ball downfield in a change-of-possession.

The placekicker kicks the field goal and point-after-touchdown attempts. He kicks off from a tee following each score and also to start each half of the game.

The long-snapper is a specialist player whose job is to send the ball backwards through his legs to the punter while, at the same time, blocking certain players on the receiving team.

The punt returner and the kickoff returner are assigned to receiving the opposing team’s kick and securing possession of the ball before trying to move it upfield.

This concludes a bird’s eye view of the positions on a regulation football field and what they entail. What may previously have appeared random activity on the field should, hopefully, now make a little more sense—enough to enhance enjoyment of this very popular sport.

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Newcomers to the football scene may be puzzled by some of the terms they hear others use when speaking of the game. You may find the following, with brief explanations, useful in shedding light on some of these words and phrases. Even if you are a veteran fan, you may still find this an interesting review.

A down and out is the path a receiver takes directly downfield, with  clean cut to the outside of the field. This is a type of pass pattern, on the route a receiver takes across the field on a pass play.

Throwing it away refers to deliberately throwing the ball out-of-bounds. It’s a useful way of prolonging the game when time is running out, because the clock is stopped temporarily.

Shotgun formation.  Used wisely, this passing formation can be smart strategy for a team’s offense. The quarterback lines up about five yards behind the center to receive the snap. (Snap describes the action of the center passing the ball through his legs to the quarterback.) This allows him ample time to study the defense. It can also give the receivers more time to position themselves to receive the catch.

Hand-off.  A basic method of transferring the ball from quarterback to running back. Although it looks simple to execute, it actually takes many hours of patient practice to perfect.

Quarterback sneak describes a maneuver in which (to give an example) the quarterback lowers his shoulder and lunges through a passage created by his linemen. It is usually used in situations in which every yard of ground becomes invaluable.

Bootleg.  A type of running play intended to deceive the defense into thinking that the quarterback has handed the ball to a running back. In fact, the quarterback has hidden it on his hip, so as either to run with it or to pass it.

Line of scrimmage.  The yard line where a down begins (where a player is tackled).  (A down is any one of four chances offensive players have to move the ball toward the opponent’s end zone.)

This is only a small sampling of football’s special language. But it may be just enough to whet your curiosity to find out more about America’s est-loved team sport.

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The previous two articles of this series touched upon football basics and personnel. This concluding article offers brief notes on equipment used in the sport, and miscellaneous facts of interest.

Equipment

Players use various pieces of equipment according to the positions they play. As the team’s leader, the quarterback wears an earpiece in his helmet, through which he can receive play plans from his coach. Helmets are made of hard plastic and are lined with absorbent materials.

Attached to the helmet is a removable face mask (also known as a face guard) to protect a player’s face.

Other protective items include: hip pads, thigh pads, knee pads, neck pads, shoulder pads, rib pads, lumbar pads (for the small of the back), forearm pads and tooth guards.

The ball

A football is made of leather and has laces. Differentiating a Canadian football from an American one are two white stripes on the former, to make it more visible. It also measures between 27.5 and 28.5 inches, whereas an American football is 28 to 28.5 inches in circumference. Each weighs 14 ounces.

Miscellaneous

A little-known fact about footballs is that home teams have to provide league officials with 36 regulation balls before games start in open-air stadiums and 24 balls in domed stadiums (with a pump in each case). This enables officials to make necessary on-field adjustments.

The first American football to have its present shape was patented in 1867. Before then, players had found that the round ball was difficult to inflate and they had to take turns doing so. With the egg-shaped ball, however, players realized that it gave them a more secure grip as they ran with it, and also that it made retrieval more challenging for opponents.

Body types

In general, football players have physiques to match the positions they usually play. Quarterbacks are 6 feet 3 inches tall and weigh 220 pounds. Offensive line players are even more stalwart; they are 6 feet 5 inches tall and weigh 300 pounds. By contrast, cornerbacks are 5 feet 11 inches in height and weigh 190 pounds. Of similar size are the strong safeties; they are 5 feet 11 inches in height and weigh 200 pounds.

Football today bears little resemblance to the game from which it originated. This is generally thought to have been harpaston, which was played by the ancient Greeks. Its objective was to run, throw or kick a ball across a goal line. It didn’t matter how the ball got there and the number of players was limitless. The modern game, however, despite its sometimes appearance of chaos to the uninitiated, is actually very well regulated and, on the whole, much safer.

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The first of this three-part series of articles briefly examined the origin of football, the dimensions of the field, the game itself and categories of players making up a team. Now let’s look at other team members not previously mentioned, to rules of the game and to penalties for breaking these rules.

The officials

Professional football games have seven officials: a referee, an umpire, a linesman, a back judge, field judge, line judge and a side judge. They ensure that the rules of the game are followed.

Of these officials (also called “zebras” because of the vertically-striped black-and-white jerseys they wear), the referee has the final word on almost every decision related to the game. He is the senior official, controlling the game and supervising the work of the other officials.

Refereeing is not an easy task, chiefly because the game of football is so fast-paced. When a referee wishes to announce a decision and to explain it, he uses any of 36 different signals to do so. He can also use his microphone.

Penalties

When a player breaks a rule, he has committed a foul and a penalty is given. Since the game’s objective is to gain yards, a penalty often results in the loss of yards or downs. The following are just a few examples of common fouls:

• Tackling or holding on to any part of an opponent’s uniform when he is not carrying the ball.
• Holding on to any part of an opponent’s helmet.
• Fighting with an opponent.
• A quarterback throwing away the ball to avoid being sacked (tackled behind the line of scrimmage).
• Making a late hit, that is, tackling an opponent after the referee has blown his whistle.

The next, and final, article of this series examines some of the equipment players use, and concludes with a miscellany of interesting football facts.

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Football played in the USA and Canada was created at Princeton University in 1867 as a soccer variant. By 1922 the NFL (National Football League) was born. This is perhaps the world’s best-known football league. It consists of 32 professional teams from cities throughout the USA.

In 1960 the Super Bowl came into existence—the result of a championship game between the NFL and what was at the time a rival league, called the American Football League.

The field

Many football fields have surfaces of artificial grass. It encourages a faster-paced game than do fields with natural grass. There is, however, a trend toward the latter, which is easier on players’ knees and ankles.

A regulation football field measures 100 yards (91 meters) in length and 53.5 yards (49 meters) in width. White lines at both ends mark the end zones, and a thick white line indicates the borders of the entire field. Other white lines, parallel to the end zones, cross the field at 5-yard intervals. These are crisscrossed by hash marks parallel to the sidelines.

At the back of each end zone, in the middle, is a 10-foot-high goal post.

The game

In the USA two teams, each consisting of 11 players, engage in four 15-minute quarters of play. Halftime lasts for 12 minutes.

A coin toss, which marks the beginning of a game, decides which team will kick off. For this, the ball is set on a kicking tee on the 30-yard line of the team performing the kickoff. The object of the game, of course, is for a team to score more points than the opposing team.

Once the game has begun, the offense has four downs, or plays, to go ten yards. If successful, it receives another set of four downs. If it fails after three tries, it usually punts the ball on the fourth down. (To punt is to kick the ball before it bounces on the ground.) Now the other team begins its own set of four downs.

Scoring points

A touchdown is worth six points. It is awarded to the team that places the ball on or over the goalline. An extra point can also be earned (a PAT, or point after touchdown). Or it can score a two-point conversion, which is a pass or run.

A field goal is worth three points, when a player kicks the ball clean through the goal post uprights and above the crossbar. A safety, worth two points, is awarded to the defensive team, along with possession of the ball, when an offensive player is tackled behind his own goal line.

The players

The maximum 45 players per team are divided into three formations: offense, defense and special teams.

At any given time, 11 players on each team are on the field. One is ‘on offense,’ which means that it has the ball and is trying to score points. It does so by moving the ball closer to the other team’s end zone. The team without the ball is ‘on defense’ and is trying to prevent its opponents from scoring.

The offense

The quarterback directs this unit which includes running backs, fullbacks and halfbacks (the offensive backfield), and also offensive linemen (center guards, tackles and tight ends).

The defense

When its opposing team is in possession of the ball, the defensive unit comes onto the field. It consists of defensive linemen, linebackers and the secondary (the defensive backfield).

Special teams

As their name suggests, these players come onto the field in special circumstances. They are assigned to the kicking or receiving units on a kickoff or punt, or to blocking or kicking units.

This concludes the first of a three-part recap of America’s best-loved team sport. Part two of the series will be devoted to some other members that make up a team and to rules and penalties for breaking them.

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The previous two articles were devoted to the origins of baseball stadiums and their progress toward enclosed ballparks with artificial turf. This final article in the series will examine multipurpose facilities and those resulting from high-tech innovations.

Multipurpose facilities

The 1970s may be regarded as the era of multipurpose facilities. Stadiums were designed not only for baseball games but also for football, rock concerts, rodeos and other sports and events to provide entertainment. They were also built to permit adequate parking.

The dominant feature of these stadiums (now no longer called ballparks) was their circular shape, which tended to make them all look alike. But to relieve the monotony, features that included fountains, light shows and exploding scoreboards were added.

Critics of these stadiums point out that, although they had a greater seating capacity than earlier ones, the seats were farther away from the action. They conceded, however, that the absence of columns did allow an unobstructed view of the game, giving them an advantage over older ballparks.

Domed stadiums

The 1970s were alos the start of an era of high-tech stadiums, including those with retractable domes. One such example is Toronto’s Skydome. It is perhaps the tallest domed stadium, and it has a hydraulic pitcher’s mound that can be raised or lowered by touching a button. And, like other multipurpose facilities, it also has a fitness club, a fast-food restaurant and a hotel.

Ballpark revival

By this time, however, fans were longing for stadiums with features reminiscent of “the good old days”: fields without symmetry and having real grass. Oriole Park at Camden Yards in Baltimore is one such ballpark. It represents a new generation in which the design, although including modern amenities, also incorporates elements of classic ballparks.

Just as a baseball game on real grass is quite different from one played on artivicial turf, so too is a game played on a field where dimensions differ from those of another. So much so, that a shot may bounce differently if it were executed in another park. And this may result in the perception that the player’s skills are not quite what they should be. In other words, that they do not “fit” the particular field’s dimensions!

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The First of this three-part series of articles dealt with the earliest baseball stadiums. Now you will read about some famous ballparks, past and present.

Wrigley Field in Chicago, now the oldest ballpark in current use in the National League, opened in April 1914. It wasn’t until August 1986, however, that lights were installed to allow the first official night game.

Yankee Stadium in New York is an example of how a ballpark’s configurations could influence the outcome of a game. Its short right field fence allowed Babe Ruth to hit more home runs than he might otherwise have done, including his 60^th in 1927.

Fenway Park in Boston, the oldest ballpark in the major leagues, opened on the same day as Tiger Stadium in 1912. It has the smallest foul territory of any big-league ballpark, which encourages greater participation of spectators.

Tiger Stadium in Detroit opened on the same day as Fenway Park, that is, on April 20, 1912. It was the first major-league ballpark to have a background. This took the form of a blank green wall which helped make the ball more clearly visible to hitters. It was then the only ballpark to have double-deck bleachers in the outfield. The second deck in right field, which hung over the field in fair territory, may have turned many flyballs into home runs.

Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles is considered a pitcher’s dream. It has deep fences and a great deal of foul ground. It opened in 1962.

The Astrodome, by which name Harris County Stadium is better known, is regarded as the world’s eighth wonder. It opened in April 1965 and was the first indoor ballpark.

The interior was air-conditioned and maintained at a steady temperature of 72 degrees Fahrenheit. Now fans could enjoy baseball all year with a comfort not previously experienced.

As far as the players were concerned, however, the Astrodome’s clear plastic roof created a disturbing glare and the natural grass was dying. The first problem was remedied by painting the roof and the second by installing artificial turf.

Artificial turf

When the 1966 baseball season arrived, artificial turf was in place at the Astrodome, and in just a few years many other ballparks worldwide followed the trend.

As is to be expected, the replacement of natural grass with artificial turf affected the outcome of baseball games. A ball played on a natural grass field, hit in a certain direction with a certain force, will behave differently from ont hit in similar fashion on artificial turf.

In the final article of this series, you will read about the next developments in stadium design, including multipurpose facilities that could accommodate not only baseball games but also football games, rock concerts, rodeos and other events.

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The streets of New York in the 1800s may be regarded as the first baseball stadium. It was open and it was free. As the crowds increased, however, players moved across the Hudson River to Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey.. It was around this time that the Knickerbocker Club was formed.

Enclosed ballparks

What began as a pastime, played essentially for exercise, was now developing into a business. And so in 1862, a Brooklyn politician named William Cammeyer, opened the first enclosed ballpark. It was called The Union Grounds and a small entrance fee was charged. Benches were provided for the women and a band played “The Star-Spangled Banner” before games. There was even a special section for gamblers.

Wooden stadiums

Wooden stadiums were the next development and were built in areas that could accommodate horses and buggies. Some even became elaborate, like Chicago’s West Side Park, which opened in 1885 and included twelve rooftop luxury boxes. The disadvantage of wooden stadiums, however, was their tendency to collapse or burn down.

New ballparks

An understandable consequence of ballpark fires was their construction using safer materials. And so in 1909, steel and cement went into the building of Forges Field. This marked the beginning of a new era of ballparks. In fact, those designed and built in the following decade became known as “classics.”

Classic ballparks

These were made from structural steel and reinforced concrete. They were built to fit into the shape and size of surrounding areas. And so, understandably, they were irregular in shape and had features that included walls, slopes and decks. In many cases they were also smaller. Not surprisingly, these new dimensions affected how the game of baseball was played. In fact, one wonders whether Babe Ruth’s “called shot” homer, executed in Wrigley Field, or Willie Mays’ “the catch” in the Polo Grounds, occurred because of the special features of the particular ballparks where they happened.

This completes the first of a three-part series of articles on baseball stadiums. In part two you will read about some famous ballparks, such as Wrigley Field and Yankee Stadium.

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